David J. Delene Projects

David J. Delene's Research Projects (Related Positions)

Note that additional details about research project is available in the University of North Dakota's Novelution system used for proposal preparation. Many projects start with a proposal prepared via Research.gov or NASA Solicitation and Proposal Integrated Review and Evaluation System (NSIRES). Such proposals typically require a statement of available Facilities (Atmospheric Sciences Department ((docx, pdf), Biographical Sketch (Dr. Delene's NSF-Bio [pdf]), list of Current and Pending Proposals/Projects (pdf), information regarding collaborators and other affiliations (xlsx), and Synergistic Activities (pdf) . The Biographical Sketch and Current and Pending Proposals/projects are created using the National Library of Medicine system and ORCiD Access. The Aerospace College has a Wiki Page with tips and frequent asked questions that can help with proposals. Additionally, the Future Aerospace Strategic Thinking (FAST) presentations available related to project ideas and people are generally willing to share old proposals as examples.

Current Projects

Unveiling Ice Crystal Chain Aggregates in Winter Storms: Contextualization using In-situ and Remote-sensing Observations
The project’s aim is to advance the understanding of the aggregate formation process by creating a storm relative location map of chain aggregates. The project uses the cloud probe, in-situ measurements (CPI, PHIPS, 2D-S, HVPS3 probes) on the P-3 aircraft to determine the amount of chain and non-chain aggregates observed. Remote sensing observations (CPL, CRS, EXRAD, ground radar, and GOES 16) are used to put the location into the larger context of the winter storm. By utilizing the complete IMPACT field project dataset, a storm relative map of chain aggregates is developed. The chain aggregate location map enables conceptual testing of different possible formation processes.

Supporting Agency - NASA MOSAICS Seed Funding - Cohort 4 (Solicitation NNH24ZDA001N-MSF, Proposal Number 24-MSF24-0010); Dollar Value - $399,995; Project Duration 05/16/2025 - 05/15/2027; Support 2026-3.0, 2027-3.0; Proposal Submitted 10/11/2024; Welcome Meeting 05/14/2025 [odt, pptx, pdf]; PR No.: 4200902152, TO: Name Patricia Boyd, Grant Number: 80NSSC25K7971

Atmospheric Methane Observations and Analysis in Western North Dakota
Methane Emissions Program/METEC at Colorado State University (CSU) is submitting a proposal to the Department of Energy solicitation, Inflation Reduction Act (IRA) – Methane Emissions Reduction Program Oil and Gas Methane Monitoring and Mitigation. The University of North Dakota is contributing to the project to provide a research aircraft equipped with instruments for the measurement of atmospheric conditions (including winds) and methane concentrations. A subcontract is included is included to Weather Modification International (WMI) for research aircraft support. The research aircraft is used for a field deployment in the time frame of calendar year 2026 (project Year 2) to obtain methane concentrations and atmospheric conditions in the oil and gas development area near Williston, North Dakota and Power River Basin in Montana/Wyoming. The field project targets the time-frame with low nature methane sources, and the exact period determine considering personnel availability. A top-down estimate of methane emissions using a mass balancing technique is applied to the collected data set.

Supporting Agency - Department of Energy EPA-MERP (FOA # DE-FOA-0003256); Dollar Value - $714,703; Project Duration 01/01/2025 - 09/30/2027; Support 2025-1.13, 2026-2.13, 2027-1.13 Months; Colorado State University PI - Anna Hodshire; Colorado State University Project Manager - Wendy Hartzell; UND Pre-award Officer - "Nancy" (Yuanyuan Wang)

Improving North Dakota Thunderstorm Forecasting using Machine Learning Neural Network (PI - Marwa Majdi)
The project will focus on enhancing the short-term forecasting of atmospheric instability, a critical factor in the formation of thunderstorms that can lead to severe weather conditions. Accurate forecasting is essential for the North Dakota Cloud Modification Project (NDCMP), which operates every summer in western North Dakota to mitigate hail damage and enhance rainfall. Reliable weather predictions are vital for anticipating the development of thunderstorms, a task that presents significant challenges. UND has collaborated with NDARB for 20+years on numerous projects to address these forecasting needs, utilizing mesoscale numerical weather prediction models to support the NDCMP’s cloud seeding initiatives.

Supporting Agency - North Dakota Atmospheric Resource Board; Dollar Value - $131,892.00; Project Duration 08/16/2024 - 06/30/2025; Support Amount - 2025-0.5 Months; PI Marwa Madji

Press:
UND Today - Forecasting thunderstorms (2024/11/12)

Investigating the Formation and Impacts of Ice Crystal Aggregates on Hypersonic Vehicles
Hypersonic vehicles encounter ice crystal aggregates when flying through tropical and mid-latitude cirrus clouds, which cover approximately one third of Earth’s surface. The ice aggregates can significantly damage the nose tips of these vehicles. Damage potential is related to ice aggregate size and mass; however, there is a lack of reliable laboratory techniques to determine if ice aggregates impact as a single large particle or disintegrate into clusters of monomers when traversing a vehicle’s shockwave. The research goal is to create a new method to assess ice aggregate impacts to hypersonic vehicles, which involved understanding the bonding strength of monomers that make up ice crystal aggregates and how they pass through hypersonic boundary layers.

Supporting Agency - Office of Naval Research; Dollar Value - $750,000; Project Duration 02/01/2023 - 01/31/2026; Support 2023-0.75, 2024-1.0, 2025-0.25 Months; PI Hallie Chelmo

Press: UND Today - UND research on hypersonic vehicles picks up speed (02/14/2023), Grand Forks Herald - UND to team with Purdue University to study impact of ice crystals on hypersonic travel (02/18/2023), UND Discovery - UND research on hypersonic vehicles picks up speed.

Collaborative Research: Comparison between In-situ and Polarimetric Radar Hail Observations in Convective Storms
A unique set of airborne in situ observations of hail was obtained by the NSF-supported armored T-28 research aircraft operated by the South Dakota School of Mines and Technology. The T-28 aircraft was capable of operating in convective storms producing hail and obtained hail number concentrations and size distributions as well as 2-D shadow images. Concurrently with aircraft observations there were S-band dual-polarimetric radar observations. The objective is to document the in-situ hail observations with the polarimetric radar signatures and use the aircraft hail observations to compute expected polarimetric radar signatures and compare them to actual radar signatures observed from the same storm volume. Varying the approximations and parameters used in the calculations and comparing the calculated to the actual radar returns will provide insight into how hail shapes, orientation, sizes and concentrations influence radar signatures. The key aspect of this proposal is the comprehensive analysis of a large volume of airborne in situ hail data from 18 missions conducted during 9 different campaigns, that have not been analyzed so far.

Supporting Agency - National Science Foundation (Proposal #2221719); UND Project Dollar Value - $277,610; Submitted 2022/02/23; Reply to Comments Submitted 2022/06/21; Recommended for Funding 2022/06/30; Official Award Notice 2022/07/13; Project Duration 2022/08/01 - 2026/07/31 (1-year No-cost Extension); PI Support 2022-0.5, 2023-1.0, 2024-1.0, 2025-0.5 Months; NSF Project Award 2221719; No Cost Extension Submitted and Approved July 2025)

IMPACTS (Investigation of Microphysics and Precipitation for Atlantic Coast-Threatening Snowstorms)
Winter snowstorms on the eastern seaboard cause major disruptions to transportation, commerce, and public safety. Snowfall is frequently organized in banded structures in winter storms, which is poorly understood and predicted by models. The ability of remote sensing technologies and numerical weather prediction models have advanced significantly which enables obtaining observations that identify key processes and improves remote sensing methods and weather forecasting. The University of North Dakota is responsible for the acquisition and processing of data from the cloud microphysics probes (Cloud Droplete Probe, King Probe, Water Content Measurement Probe, Rosemount Icing Probes, 2D-S Probes, HVPS3 Probes, and Hawkeye probe), which are mounted on the NASA P-3 aircraft. The integration of these probes required technical work for establishing power and data connections, mounting of the probes on the under-wing pylons, buildup of the cabin instrument racks, and verifying operation of all instruments. Software is used to ensure proper instrument function once installed and to handle the P-3 data streams. The UND team has operated the probes during the IMPACTS field campaigns, which includes cleaning, maintenance, conducting quality control checks, and troubleshooting the instruments. UND is responsible for delivering Level 2 data products to the project archive and conducts analysis of the cloud probe data in collaboration with other IMPACTS investigators. Graduate students, Christian Nairy and Jennifer Moore, have been operating the cloud probes on the NASA P-3 research aircraft throughout the two month long, 2023 IMPACTS field project.

Supporting Agency - National Aeronautics & Space Administration; Dollar Value - $1,152,905; Transfer Data 2021/11; Project Duration 1/1/2019 - 12/31/2025; Support 2019-1.0, 2020-1.0, 2021-0.25, 2022-1.0, 2023-2.0, 2024-1.0, 2025-1.0 Months, Grant Number: 80NSSC1K0328

Press
2023/05/31: UND Discovery - By flying into snowstorms, UND grad students make IMPACT for NASA
2023/04/27: UND Today - On hair-raising flights, UND grad students make an IMPACT for NASA
2023 - UND Discovery - UND weather balloon helps with NASA research.
2023 - NPR - Winter Storms NASA Flights Weather Research (Christian Nairy 2:25-3:55)
2022 - NASA Earth Expeditions: Storm Chasing Scientists Fly Into the Clouds to Understand Winter Snowstorms, "This week at NASA" video, where IMPACTS is from 2:14 to 2:44, with Christian and Jen in the Left (near wall) seen at 2:31.

Interdisciplinary Renewable and Environmental Chemistry Research Experience for Undergraduates (REU)
This National Science Foundation supported Research Experience for Undergraduates (REU) program gives research opportunities to undergraduate students with priority to students from tribal colleges and other primarily undergraduate institutions. Participants work alongside UND faculty and students on interdisciplinary summer research projects at the intersection of chemistry, chemical engineering, and atmospheric sciences. Students also receive training in science communication and community outreach. Additional information about the REU program is available on the project's website.

Supporting Agency - National Science Foundation; Project Dollar Value - $390,000; Project Duration 2023/05/01 - 2026/04/30; Support 0.5-2023, 0.5-2024, 0.5-2025 Months; PI Guodong Du; Acknowledgment - National Science Foundation (NSF) under the IREC REU program CHE-2244530.

Pending Projects

Adaptive Hygroscopic Cloud Seeding with Powdered Seeding Agents
The project develops methods for deployment of an Aerosol Particle Sizer (APS) and Cloud Droplet Probe (CDP) on seeding aircraft to enable routine atmospheric observations of the environment that can be used for adaptive hygroscopic cloud seeding operations. The APS provides aerosol concentrations for both the accumulation (< 1 μm) and dust (> 1 μm) modes, while the CDP measure differences in clouds due to changes in cloud condensation nuclei concentrations. The Adaptive Observations System (AOS, APS/CDP coupled to the CWIP) is evaluated during the project’s field deployment to test powdered seeding dispersion using operational cloud seeding aircraft. Additionally, the concentration and size distribution of powdered seeding dispersion is measured in the laboratory to provide a comparison to atmospheric measurements.

Supporting Agency - UAE Research Program for Rain Enhancement Science, subcontract under Weather Modification International (WMI); Project Dollar Value - $300,000; Project Duration 2026/01/01 - 2028/12/31; Support 2.5-2026, 2.5-2027, 2.5-2027 Months; Overall Project PI - Kurt Hibert. Proposal Submitted 08/28/2025.

Interdisciplinary Renewable and Environmental Chemistry Research Experience for Undergraduates (REU)
A National Science Foundation supported Research Experience for Undergraduates (REU) program that gives research opportunities to undergraduate students with an interest in Chemistry. Participants work alongside UND faculty and students on interdisciplinary summer research projects at the intersection of chemistry, chemical engineering, and atmospheric sciences. Students also receive training in science communication and community outreach.

Supporting Agency - National Science Foundation; Project Dollar Value - $427,651; Project Duration 2026/04/01 - 2029/03/31; Support 0.6-2026, 0.9-2027, 0.9-2027 Months; PI Yun Ji; Acknowledgment - National Science Foundation (NSF) under the IREC REU program.

Expendable Air-Sea Profiling Observations
Hazardous situations, such as severe storms and blizzards, require vertical profiling for data collection and proper research. Given the hazardous conditions, it is often difficult to do without either specialized aircraft or sacrificing costly balloon equipment. Access to expendable balloon-based equipment would reduce these costs, allowing for more frequent data collection during hazardous events, expanding data resources for further potentially lifesaving research. One such expendable measurement that is not currently available on standard radiosondes is the horizontal temperature difference, which enables calculation of optical turbulence. A thermocouple is an inexpressive sensor that can be added to expendable radiosondes to obtain high precision temperature difference measurements even under hazardous conditions.
Supporting Agency - DOD ONR STTR; Dollar Value - $95,999; Project Duration 08/01/2025 - 10/31/2026; Support 2026-1.0, 2027-1.0; Proposal Submitted 02/05/2025

Research Infrastructure: MRI: Track 1 Acquisition of Pyrolysis-Gas Chromatograph with a High-Resolution Mass Spectrometer (Pyr-GC-HR-MS) (PI - Alena Kubatova)
Obtain observations of the chemistry of atmospheric aerosols for several fog event to determine effects on fog formation, duration, and dissipation.

Supporting Agency - NSF; Dollar Value - $804,139; Project Duration 07/01/2025 - 06/30/2028; Support 2026-2.0, 2027-2.0 2028-2.0 Months; PI Alexa Kubatova; Proposal Submitted 11/07/2024

Markov-Chain Radiative Transfer Formalism for Investigating Cloud Microstructure with LIDAR (PI - Markus Allgaier)
Clouds are composed of water droplets, ice crystal, or both. Ice crystals have various shapes and sizes, and can form aggregates. The exact microstructure of clouds has a profound impact on cloud optical properties, for example reflectance and albedo. Linking observations of apparent optical properties to cloud microphysical properties is challenging, since the reflectance of a scattering system is ambiguous with respect to its constituents' particle shape, size, and density. Novel LiDAR instruments give access to spectrum, polarization and return pulse shape, opening avenues to accessing parameters related to microstructure. However, producing detailed numerical models of LiDAR returns of homogeneous and complex scattering systems remains a formidable task: Monte Carlo radiative transfer, a powerful method that can capture arbitrary physical detail and time-domain response of a scattering system, is computationally costly, especially when used to iteratively reconstruct system properties based on observations. While Monte Carlo radiative transfer enables quantitative LiDAR analysis in principle, it certainly cannot scale to the size and speed required for remote sensing. Atime domain Markov-Chain formalism for radiative transfer is proposed, which is related to Monte Carlo radiative transfer: While Monte Carlo radiative transfer calculates the distribution of observables by simulating many possible scattering pathways, Markov Chain radiative transfer discretizes the volume and tracks a "probability tree", effectively producing the same distribution without the computational repetition of Monte Carlo simulations. Therefore, Markov Chain radiative transfer offers all the advantages of Monte Carlo radiative transfer, namely the capability of modeling all relevant single-particle properties and inhomogeneities in the scattering system, but at lower computational cost. We aim to apply Markov Chain radiative transfer to cloud observations and investigate a number of related problems: (1) What are the signatures of different ice crystal shapes and frozen/liquid mass fractions in the time domain, spectrum and polarization? (2) Are current instruments capable of resolving these signatures, and what are the requirements for future instruments intended to target these signatures specifically? (3) Can observations using LiDAR be inverted to retrieve cloud micro-properties in a computationally efficient manner

Supporting Agency - NASA; Dollar Value - $579,225; Project Duration 05/01/2025 - 04/30/2028; Support 2026-0.5, 2027-0.5, 2028-0.5 Months; PI Markus Allgair

Previous Project

Summer and Fall 2023 Saudi Arabia Field Project and Analysis (Spring 2024 Extension I)
The University of North Dakota is supporting the Saudi Aerosol-Cloud-Precipitation Enhancement Campaign (SARPEC) series of field projects, which aims to determine the effectiveness of operational cloud seeding techniques for rainfall augmentation within the arid climates of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The first SARPEC intensive operational period (IOP) occurred in the late summer of 2023 coincident with the seasonal monsoon of the Asir mountains/escarpment of south-west Saudi Arabia. In-situ measurements of cloud microphysics properties are obtained using the North Dakota Citation Research Aircraft, which deployed cloud probes and airborne wind measurements systems. Twelve research flights were conducted during the summer of 2023, which include five cloud physics missions. Cloud penetrations were conduced at various levels (-10 °C, -15 °C, -20 °C) above cloud base to determine how liquid water content properties vary with vertical development and to observe the effects of ice crystal aggregation processes. A second SARPEC IOP was conducted in October/November of 2023, with 21 flights completed. A third SARPEC IOP was conducted from March 16 to April 26, 2024 (Extension I) with 15 flights completed. Analysis data from the SARPEC IOP are presented at national and international conference. Initially three peer-reviewed Journal Articles are planned; 1.) Saudi Aerosol-Cloud-Precipitation Enhancement Campaign (SARPeC) - Motivation, Science and Operations: Successful Dual Aircraft Convective Cloud Penetrations, 2.) Observations of Wind Flow Related to Thunderstorm Genesis Along the Red Sea Escarpment of Saudi Arabia 3.) Cloud Observations and Processes in Saudi Arabia Convective Clouds.

Supporting Agency - Weather Modification International; Dollar Value - $299,930 (03/21/2024 Extension I - $150,000); Project Duration 07/01/2023 - 06/30/2024 (03/21/2024 Extension I - 06/30/2025); Support 2023-4.0, 2024-3.0 Months

Videos: Saudi Arabia Fall 2023 (Lynnlee Rosolino); Lynnlee Rosolino 2024 Saudi Videso [mp4, MOV]

Press:
UND Today - Just another day at the (cloud seeding over Saudi Arabia) office (02/29/2024).

Interdisciplinary Renewable and Environmental Chemistry Research Experience for Undergraduates (REU)
This National Science Foundation supported Research Experience for Undergraduates (REU) program gives research opportunities to undergraduate students with priority to students from tribal colleges and other primarily undergraduate institutions. Participants work alongside UND faculty and students on interdisciplinary summer research projects at the intersection of chemistry, chemical engineering, and atmospheric sciences. Students also receive training in science communication and community outreach. Additional information about the REU program is available on the project's website.

Supporting Agency - National Science Foundation; Project Dollar Value - $330,000; Proposal Submitted - 2017/08; Proposal Awarded - 2018/01/01; Project Duration 2018/05/01 - 2023/04/30, NSF Project Award 1757922.

Cape Experiment 2019 (CapeEx19) Year 2
The University of North Dakota (UND) conducts research on cloud-physics to understand convective storm development. Measurements of the micro-physical properties of clouds is important for understanding convective storms. The North Dakota Citation Research Aircraft is capable of measuring cloud microphysical properties and state-of-the-atmosphere parameters in and around convective storms. The Navy has research interests in evaluating the Mid-Course Radar (MCR) and obtaining cloud measurements of cirrus clouds near convective storms. To obtain convective storm measurements, a two week field project is planned for July of 2019 with the Citation Research Aircraft based at the Space Coast Regional Airport near Titusville, Florida. This proposal provides details for using the Citation Research Aircraft, operated by Weather Modification International, to conduct airborne measurements during the Florida field project.

Supporting Agency - Naval Surface Warfare Center Dahlgren Division (NSWCDD); Dollar Value - $137,000; Project Duration 2021/05/01 - 2022/10/31.

Weather Balloon Flights in Support of NASA DCOTSS
The NASA Dynamics and Chemistry of the Summer Stratosphere (DCOTSS) address convective impacts on the summer stratosphere over North America. University of North Dakota (UND) is supporting DCOTSS in part by conducting Ozone Sonde weather balloon flights at the University of North Dakota. Measurements of the vertical profile of ozone help to understand the North American Monsoon Anticyclone (NAMA) and how strong convective storms penetrate deep (up to 20 km AGL) into the lower stratosphere. A total of 34 balloon flights are planned during the summer of 2021 and 2022 field project period from Grand Forks.

Supporting Agency - National Aeronautics & Space Administration (Extension to Weather Balloon Flights in Support of NASA DCOTSS; Dollar Value - $286,970; Project Duration 2019/01/01 - 2023/12/31).

Mixed Phase and Melting Layer Microphysics
This research focuses on analysis of NASA field program observations to explaining mixed-phase microphysics, focusing on the transition of ice to liquid cloud in the melting layer (ML). Data are analyzed from the following field programs: Convection And Moisture EXperiment (CAMEX-4), Cirrus Regional Study of Tropical Anvils and Cirrus Layers Florida Area Cirrus Experiment (CRYSTAL-FACE); NASA African Monsoon Multidisciplinary Analyses (NAMMA); Tropical Composition, Cloud and Climate Coupling (TC4); Genesis and Rapid Intensification Processes (GRIP); Light Precipitation Evaluation Experiment (LPVEx); Mid-latitude Continental Convective Clouds Experiment (MC3E); Olympic Mountain Experiment (OLYMPEX); Investigation of Microphysics and Precipitation for Atlantic Coast-Threatening Snowstorms (IMPACTS). During all the field project, the melting layers time periods are identified. The beginning of the melting layer starts at 0 °C for all cases. The end of the melting layer is determined using 2D-S and HVPS3 images. The ‘melted’ time is when images are fully round with no indications of being frozen.

Supporting Agency - UCAR/COMET, flow through from National Aeronautics & Space Administration - 80NSSC20k0897; Dollar Value - $101,250; Transfer Data 2021/07/22; Project Duration 7/27/2020 - 9/30/2022 .

Comparison of Ground-Based and GEOS-R Fog and Low Stratus Observations over North Dakota
Unmanned Aircraft System (UAS) operations have rapidly increased since they are not only used for military applications but in several civil application domains such as border surveillance, weather mentoring and commercial transportation. There will be over 1.6 million drones by the end of the year 2021. North Dakota is a hotbed of UAS research and has an FAA UAS test site that conducted research to quickly integrate UAS into the national airspace. Poor weather conditions (fog, clouds, icing, wind, turbulence) prevailing during UAS flights threaten safe operations and affect the endurance effectiveness and causes delays, aircraft accidents and fatalities. The project's objective is to enhance a fog data set created during a recently funded project by adding fog and low stratus satellite data over North Dakota. The project's satellite data is combined with measurements obtained by deploying the Meteorological Observation Trailer (MetTrailer). The combined data set is used to improve forecasting of fog events.

Supporting Agency - North Dakota NASA Established Program to Stimulate Competitive Research (EPSCoR); Dollar Value - $22,500; Project Duration 2022/01/15 - 2022/08/31.

RAPID: North Dakota Field Measurement Campaign to Improve Understanding of Fog Processes
Fog is a high-impact weather hazard over many locations worldwide causing serious disruptions to road traffic, marine transport, and especially aviation operations. The main impact of fog is visibility reduction that can lead to financial damages, severe road accidents, devastating aviation disasters, and loss of lives. Therefore, improved understanding of fog formation and dissipation has broad societal impacts since such knowledge will result in improved atmospheric models that enable a more reliable and efficient transportation system. Such improvements are especially critical for routine utilization of Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) in transportation since flights need to be near the ground and out of sight of the operator. Accurate and detailed information on current, and near future atmospheric conditions, help to ensure safe and effective deployment of UAS platforms. Educating students to provide this necessary atmospheric information prepares them for emerging jobs and enables them to provide needed scientific advances.

The genesis and evolution of fog is the result of many atmospheric processes (cloud, turbulence, radiation), which make accurate modeling of fog a challenge. Accurate measurements of atmospheric conditions are necessary for improved understanding of fog processes and related atmospheric interactions (clouds, aerosols, turbulence). Obtaining a better understanding of fog processes enables improvements in numerical weather prediction modeling. The project will conduct atmospheric observations during two month-long intensive observational periods at Hector International Airport (Fargo, North Dakota), and the surrounding area, during the peak period of fall and spring fog events. The field projects will deploy a complex suite of meteorological, cloud, and aerosol instruments at surface locations, and on balloon, aircraft, and weatherized UAS platforms. Utilizing these airborne platforms enables detailed observations of the vertical structure of the boundary layer, which will provide a unique database of measurements available to the scientific community for analysis.

Supporting Agency - National Science Foundation; Dollar Value - $45,000; Project Duration 2021/08/15 - 2021/07/31, NSF Project Award 2147125.

Press (RAPID Fog Field Project) - UND University Letter, UND Today - Lifting the fog about fog.

External Related Project Link - National Science Foundation Award Abstract

Improving Education using Open Hardware, Software, and Course Material in a Hands-on, Project-based Learning Environment
The ultimate project’s objective is to improve STEM education at all educational levels by creating a hands-on environment to enable teams-based problem solving using interdisciplinary tools available in an open resource gateway. The focus is on creating an educational gateway where instructors have resources to enable students to effectively learn problem-solving instead of simply doing the minimum required for assignments. Learning is most effective when students are able to see how different aspects of a topic are related. For observational science, this includes making instruments, conducting measurements, testing instrument performance, calibrating sensors, and comparing measurements. Typically, students only obtain such an experience in graduate school where class sizes are small and students focus much of their time on thesis research. This project implements a holistic approach to STEM learning by providing tested resources so instructors can effectively incorporate problems based learning into classes. Course syllabus and student projects are developed that use the 3D-PAWS to add practical experience to the theory provided by text book material. Quizzes and test questions are designed to evaluate student problem-solving abilities. The project aims to provide all the essential material to the educational community in an easily accessible manner. Having such an open gateway with such resources will enable instructors to focus their time interacting with students instead of developing and testing instructional material.

Supporting Agency - John D. Odegard School of Aerospace Sciences (JDOSAS); Dollar Value - $10,000; Project Duration 2021/01/01 - 2021/012/31.

Unmanned Aircraft System (UAS) Icing Protection System to Enable Supercooled Fog Flights
The University of North Dakota (UND) has ongoing interest in conducting atmospheric research to understand fog, the protection of aircraft flying in super-cooled droplets, and weather modification research. One application of weather modification is the reduction of fog at critical facilities such as airports. CAV Systems has a long history of developing icing protection systems. UND and CAV Systems will work together to test an icing protection systems for unmanned aircraft systems (UAS). The design requirements for the UAS icing protection system are obtained from the use case of conducting cloud seeding to reduce fog at airports to mitigate slow downs and closures. Some major airport hubs, for example Abu Dhabi in the UAE, have experience major delays and closures for many days, which cost millions of dollars of losses each year. Recent technological advances have allowed seeding material to be dispersed using a UAS platform. Silver Iodine cloud seeding flares are very effective at dissipating super-cooled fog (where the temperature is below 0 ℃). However, flying a UAS in super-cooled fog for even short periods of time may greatly degrade performance and present a safety hazard. Our project's vision is to work on enabling UAS to operated in super-cooled fog to enable cloud seeding by companies. Such fog mitigation companies would very likely include Weather Modification International based in Fargo, North Dakota and Ice Crystal Engineering of Kindred, North Dakota since they are both current world leaders in the weather modification industry.

COX Icing Tunnel Experiment - May 2021: The University of North Dakota (UND) has ongoing interest in conducting atmospheric research to understand fog, advances in airborne platforms, and weather modification research. CAV Systems has a long history of developing icing protection systems. UND and CAV Systems worked together on a project to test an icing protection systems for rotator type unmanned aircraft systems (UAS). An application of the UAS icing protection system is conducting cloud seeding to reduce fog at critical facilities such as airports. Silver Iodine cloud seeding flares are effective at dissipating super-cooled fog (where the temperature is below 0 ℃). Our experiments at the COX Icing Tunnel on Long Island, New York clearly demonstrated that flying a rotator type UAS in super-cooled fog typical of the atmosphere for even short periods (minutes) degrade performance to the extent of requiring landing. The developed ice protection system would extend the flight duration of the UAS sufficiently; however, there would be an overall flight duration reduction due to the additional weight of the ice protection system. Our experiment is the first step in enabling UAS to operated in super-cooled fog, which will enable cloud seeding by companies, such as Weather Modification International based in Fargo, North Dakota to conduct weather modification project utilizing UAS platforms.

Supporting Agency - North Dakota Department of Commerce; Project Dollar Value - $400,000; UND Award Value - $200,000; Proposal Submitted - 2019/11/08; Project Duration 2019/12/13 - 2021/06/30.

Unmanned Aircraft System (UAS) Fog Dispersal Research

The University of North Dakota (UND) has ongoing interest in conducting atmospheric research to understand fog, the process of fog formation, and fog dissipation. Weather Modification International (WMI) of Fargo, North Dakota is a world-leading company for providing weather modification products and services. WMI applies scientific methods when conducting weather modification projects around the world. Together UND and WMI are working at addressing the economically important issue of fog slowing down and closing airports. Certain major airport hubs, for example Abu Dhabi in the UAE, have experience major delays and even closures for several days. Hence, fog cost the airline industry millions of dollars each year. Additionally, shipping ports and surface transportation have issues with fog restricting their operations. Recent advances in technology has provided new tools for the application of materials to dissipate fog, namely unmanned aircraft systems (UAS). Super-cooled fog (where the air temperature is below 0 degrees C) can be dissipated by the traditional weather modification technique of releasing ice nuclei into the fog to form large ice particle that fall to the ground. Warm fog however, is much more common, and more difficult to dissipate. New techniques, for example releasing large droplets or giant cloud condensation nuclei into the fog, need to be tested for the dissipation of warm fog. UAS provides a platform for releasing cloud seeding material and for obtain in-situ measurements necessary for determining the effectiveness of dissipation methods. Our project's objective is to test cloud seeding of fog using a UAS platform and evaluate the effectiveness of different fog dissipation methods. The project will enable the effectiveness of the dissipation methods to be quantified and provide measurements for understanding of the physical processes that lead to fog formation and dissipation. The project's results will document the fog dissipation effectiveness of different methodologies and facilitate development of new products and services, which will result in job creation at WMI. The projects measurements will provide data necessary for the scientific analysis of fog processes and will improve our modeling of fog, which will lead to improved fog forecasting.

Supporting Agency - North Dakota Department of Commerce; Project Dollar Value - $600,000; UND Award Value - $300,000; Proposal Submitted - 2019/05/17; Project Duration 2019/09/25 - 2021/06/30.

New Engineered Organic Nuclei
The University of North Dakota (UND) has experience and ongoing interest in conducting atmospheric research to understand ice nuclei and precipitation processes. Bird-C of Vienna, Austria is a world-leading company for producing useful materials from modified bacteria. Bird-C uses scientific methods to understand modifications to the envelope of bacteria, including how to make the bacteria better ice nuclei. Ice nuclei that produce ice at warmer temperatures than commonly occurring atmospheric ice nuclei can be used to modify (seed) clouds to produce precipitation that would otherwise not happen. Initial testing of New Engineered Organic Nuclei (NEON) produced by Bird-C indicate that the nuclei are effective cloud condensation nuclei and immersion ice nuclei. The National Science Foundation (NSF) has supported development of a new cloud chamber at Michigan Technological University (MTU). The Pi Cloud Chamber at MTU enables testing of the ice nucleating ability of particles at prescribed temperatures and liquid water concentrations. The major obstacles for bring NEON to market is (1) showing how effective it is compared to AgI at producing ice under controlled cloud chamber conditions, and (2) demonstrating that NEON can be released into clouds using aircrafts. The major issue with testing NEON is releasing the material at a prescribed concentrations and duration. A dispersion system is required to release the material for laboratory and atmospheric testing. Our project's objective is to develop a dispersion system for (1) conducting laboratory testing and atmospheric cloud seeding testing. The Pi Cloud Chamber will be used to determine ice nuclei activation temperatures and aircraft-based release will demonstrate dispersion of the material into a cloud system. The results will document the effectiveness of NEON as a new cloud seeding material.

Supporting Agency - North Dakota Department of Commerce; Project Dollar Value - $150,000; UND Award Value - $75,000; Proposal Submitted - 2019/05/17; Project Duration 2019/09/25 - 2021/06/30.

Cape Experiment 2019 (CapeEx19)
The University of North Dakota (UND) conducts research on cloud-physics to understand convective storm development. Measurements of the micro-physical properties of clouds is important for understanding convective storms. The North Dakota Citation Research Aircraft is capable of measuring cloud microphysical properties and state-of-the-atmosphere parameters in and around convective storms. The Navy has research interests in evaluating the Mid-Course Radar (MCR) and obtaining cloud measurements of cirrus clouds near convective storms. To obtain convective storm measurements, a two week field project is planned for July of 2019 with the Citation Research Aircraft based at the Space Coast Regional Airport near Titusville, Florida. This proposal provides details for using the Citation Research Aircraft, operated by Weather Modification International, to conduct airborne measurements during the Florida field project.

Supporting Agency - Naval Surface Warfare Center Dahlgren Division (NSWCDD); Dollar Value - $848,809; Project Duration 2019/07/01 - 2021/05/14.

Press (CapeEx19 Field Project) - UND Press Release, University Letter, NDUS, Newwise, KNOX Radio, Prairie Public, Grand Forks Herald, UND Today - Weathering the storm in the name of research

Press (Related Navy Operations) - USS Maine Successfully Tests Trident II D5LE Missile

Field Project - Operations Plan [odt, pdf], Aircraft Configuration [odt, pdf], Picture Gallery

Evaluation of the Alberta Weather Modification Project using Historical Radar Data (Latest Radar)
Alberta, Canada is a major area for damaging hailstorms. Thirteen storms between 1981 and 1998 resulted in $600 million of damages in Calgary. Two 1996 Alberta hailstorms resulted in damages of $103 million. In 2010, a storm generating 4 cm hailstones caused $400 million worth of damage. Therefore, mitigation of hail damages is important to the Calgary urban area. A weather modification program to suppress hail was launched in 1996. Our project's goal is to analyze historical radar data from the Alberta hail suppression project to evaluate the effectiveness of the program. Seeded and non-seeded storm cells will be investigated using radar observations. Since the Alberta project only seeds storms that threaten urban areas, the available radar data includes both seeded and non-seeded storms. Radar data will be analyzed using the TITAN and LROSE software packages. These software packages converts radar data into Cartesian coordinates, identify storms, and track cells. Radar characteristics of seeded storm cells will be compared to non-seeded cells to determine the effectiveness of cloud seeding.

Supporting Agency - Weather Modification International; Project Dollar Value - $80,342; Proposal Submitted - 2019/03; Proposal Awarded - 2019/05/30; Project Duration 2019/05/16 - 2020/09/30.

Coherent Backscattering of Cloud Particles
Since the mid-1970s, the University of North Dakota (UND) has own and operated a Citation Research Aircraft for conducting atmospheric research. The Citation Research Aircraft flies the state-of-the-art Cloud Droplet Probe (CDP), the 2-dimensional Stero (2DS) probe and the Model 3 High Volume Spectrometer Probe (HVSP3). Together these three probes measure the number concentration and shape of particles over sizes from small cloud droplets to rain drops. United Technologies Corporation (UTC) Aerospace Systems, a world leader in commerical aircraft instruments, is developing new instruments to improve flight safety. UND and UTC have conducted fligt testing of several prototype instruments. To fully understand the performance of the prototype instruments, a model of the scattering of coherent (laser) light by cloud hydrometeors (water and ice particles) is necessary. In particular, the backwards scattering of laser light produced by the instrument and collected by the instrument's optics. While this project focuses on very specific instrumentation, the results have applications to many lidar and radar systems.

Supporting Agency - North Dakota Department of Commerce; Project Dollar Value - $600,000; UND Award Value - $300,000; Project Duration 2016/07/01 - 2019/06/30; No Cost Extension to 2020/08/15.

Evaluation of Commercially Produced Ice Nuclei (Cloud Chamber Videos - June 2018, Valley News Live, UND Today, 11 October 2016 Press Release) The University of North Dakota (UND) has experience and ongoing interest in conducting atmospheric research to understand clouds and precipitation processes. Ice Crystal Engineering LLC (ICE) of Kindred, North Dakota is a world-leading manufacturer of pyrotechnic cloud seeding flares for use in hail suppression, rain enhancement and snow pack augmentation projects. Weather Modification, Inc. (WMI) of Fargo, North Dakota uses scientific methods to conduct weather modification projects world-wide, including modification of aircraft for operational seeding programs and atmospheric research. To document product effectiveness, it is necessary to know how particles generated by burning seeding flares change the micro-structure of clouds. The National Science Foundation (NSF) has supported development of a new cloud chamber at Michigan Technological University (MTU). PI cloud chamber at MTU enables testing of the ice nucleating ability of particles at prescribed temperatures and liquid water concentrations. The major obstacle to testing cloud seeding flares using the MTU cloud chamber facility is introducing particles at concentrations low enough to ensure the chamber is not contaminated. To avoid chamber contamination, air sample dilution is necessary to reduce the particle concentration to an acceptable level. Our project's objective is to develop a cloud-nuclei injection system and use the system to deliver seeding material from burning flares into the PI cloud chamber to determine ice nuclei activation temperatures. The results will document the effectiveness of currently produced ICE flares and facilitate development of new products, which will result in job creation at ICE and WMI. The cloud chamber experiments provide scientific analysis of a critical aspect of weather modification, and will improve our understanding of cloud-physics and precipitation development.

Supporting Agency - North Dakota Department of Commerce; Project Dollar Value - $223,540; UND Award Value - $111,770; Project Duration 2016/11/01 - 2019/10/31.

Precipitation Evaluation of the North Dakota Cloud Modification Project (NDCMP) using Rain Gauge and Radar Observations
Rainfall data from the Atmospheric Resource Board Cooperative Observer Network (ARBCON) in North Dakota is available. The ARBCON data set from 1977 to 2018 will be analyzed and compared to previous results (Wise 2005) obtained for the 1977 to 2004 period. Monthly and summer season rainfall totals will be determined for selected areas. The area-averaged summer total for a non-seeded (control) area will be determined. A single ratio statistical test will be used to determine the effect of the cloud seeding in North Dakota following a methodology similar to previous cloud seeding assessments. Results are expected to show an increase in summer rainfall totals due to cloud seeding as observed in previous studies (Wise 2005); however, the statistical significance should improve with the inclusion of the additional 14 years (2005-2018) of data. The longer duration data set will provide greater confidence in the rainfall difference between the seeded and control areas.

Supporting Agency - North Dakota Atmospheric Resource Board; Project Dollar Value - $31,352; Proposal Submitted - 2018/08; Proposal Awarded - 2018/09/01; Project Duration 2018/09/01 - 2019/05/30.

Analysis of CAPE 2015 Data Set
The Citation Research Aircraft created a unique data set of atmospheric observations during the summer 2015 field project at Cape Canaveral, Florida (CAPE2015). The data set contains measurements in thunderstorm anvils concurrent with one of the most advanced radars systems in the world, the Navy's Mid-Course Doppler Radar (MCR). The unique CAPE2015 data set provides exceptional opportunities to advancing our understanding of thunderstorms, weather and climate. Data analysis combines the aircraft measurements with radar, balloon, surface and model data. Specifically, in-situ cirrus cloud observations are related to MCR reflectivity, aircraft profiles are compared to balloon and model profiles, aircraft and MCR vertical velocity is compared, and the turbulence and total kinetic energy is investigated. The project's goals are to document the quality of the MCR measurements and improve the forecasting of cirrus clouds by computer models.

Supporting Agency - Naval Surface Warfare Center, Dollar Value - $75,000, Extension I - $50,000; Project Duration 2016/05/30 - 2016/12/31; Extension II - $50,000; Project Duration 2017/07/01 - 2018/05/31; Extension III - $50,000; Project Duration 2018/06/01 - 2019/05/31.

Scientific Support for Korea Research Aircraft
The University of North Dakota (UND) has experience conducting atmospheric research using aircraft platforms. UND has experience in cloud-physics, aerosol, air quality, and remote sensing measurements using research aircrafts. Weather Modification International (WMI) is developing a King Air 350 research aircraft for the Korea Meteorological Administration (KMA). UND is supporting the KMA aircraft development by proving scientific support related to documentation development, scientific software, and specialized training.

Supporting Agency - Weather Modification International; Project Duration 2016/08/01 - 2018/12/31.

Journal of Weather Modification 2015-17 Project
The University of North Dakota provides editorial and administrative support for the Journal of Weather Modification.

Supporting Agency - Weather Modification Association/ Dollar Value - $18,712.

Proof of Concept Cloud Condensation Nuclei Counter for Unmanned Aircraft Systems
Presently, there is no commercially available instrument capable of measuring the CCN supersaturation spectrum in less than several minutes. Furthermore, current instruments are large and difficult to use for airborne applications. Our Piezo film sensor approach allows multiple supersaturation measurements to be made simultaneously in a small package which is a significant technological advancement that allows CCN measurements on small unmanned aircraft platforms.

Supporting Agency - North Dakota Department of Commerce, Dollar Value - $99,739

Analysis of Polarimetric Cloud Analysis and Seeding Test Measurements
This project is a continuation of the POLCAST, POLCAST2, POLCAST3 and POLCAST4 programs. We believe there is sufficient data obtain from the four POLCAST field programs to conduct an effective assessment of hygroscopic seeding on convective clouds in North Dakota. Specifically, the proposed project will, 1.) conduct a detailed statistical analysis of the POLCAST airborne measurements to determine suitability of atmospheric conditions in North Dakota for conducting effective hygroscopic seeding and 2.) conduct a preliminary assessment of radar polarimetric observables to determine if there are differences between seeded and un-seeded clouds.

Supporting Agency - North Dakota Atmospheric Resource Board, Project Dollar Value - $121,487

Ophir 2016 Flight Testing
The University of North Dakota Citation Research Aircraft is conducting flights in March and April 2016 supported by Ophir Corporation. Ophir Corporation needs airborne measurements to further their instrument development efforts. Ophir's instrument uses lasers to characterize the air flow around an aircraft. The Citation Research Aircraft flights obtain measurements of aerosol, cloud, and state-of-the-atmosphere parameters over the flight conditions typically encountered by commercial aviation aircraft. The long-term research objective is to develop an instrument for deployment on commercial aircraft that improves flight safety.

Supporting Agency - Ophir Corporation; Dollar Value - $83,785.

Florida 2015 Airplane and Cloud Measurements (CAPE2015)
The University of North Dakota's Citation Research Aircraft is used to conduct two weeks of research measuring in Florida thunderstorm. The Citation Research Aircraft samples thunderstorm anvils up to an altitude of 40,000 ft concurrent with one of the most advanced radars systems in the world, the Navy's Mid-Course Doppler Radar (MCR). The unique data set produced by the field project provides exceptional opportunities for UND students to contribute to advancing our understanding of thunderstorms, weather and climate. Combining measurements made with advanced airborne instrumentation on the Citation Research Aircraft with MCR observations provides the unique opportunity to advance our understanding of cloud physics and make new discoveries.

Supporting Agency - Naval Surface Warfare Center; Dollar Value - $358,936.

Press - Grand Forks Herald, University Letter, University & Public Affairs, WDAZ

UTC Fall 2015 Flight Testing
United Technologies Corporation (UTC) Aerospace Systems continued flight testing on the Citation Research Aircraft in 2015. Two prototype Optical Ice Detector (OID) instruments are being tested during 10 hours of flights in a variety of cloud conditions. Clouds with only water drops, only ice particles and mixed water/ice clouds are targeted. The Citation Research Aircraft carries advance microphysical instruments for sampling from the surface to an altitude of 40,000 ft. The OIDs performance is evaluated by comparisons with the advanced research instruments on-board the Citation Research Aircraft. The overall goal of UTC's testing program is to have reliable instruments for deployment on commercial airline aircraft.

Supporting Agency - United Technologies Corporation Aerospace Systems; Dollar Value - $105,007.

UTC Fall 2014 Flight Testing
United Technologies Corporation (UTC) Aerospace Systems funded a Citation Research Aircraft project to tests several instruments under development for commercial aircraft. Prototypes of these commercial instrument are installed on the Citation Research Aircraft for flights in clouds and precipitation. During the project, clouds with only water drops, only ice particles and mixed water/ice clouds are sampled. Flights are conducted from the surface up to 40,000 ft to cover the altitude range of commercial aircraft. The project's objective is to evaluate the prototype instrument's performance by comparing measurements to the Citation's set of research instruments.

Supporting Agency - United Technologies Corporation Aerospace Systems; Dollar Value - $104,046.

Additional Instrument Deployment during Fall 2014 Flight Testing
United Technologies Corporation Aerospace Systems funded additional instrument testing during the Fall 2014 Flight Testing field project.

Supporting Agency - United Technologies Corporation Aerospace Systems; Dollar Value - $5,099.

Installation of Two Optical Sampling Windows
United Technologies Corporation Aerospace Systems funded the installation of two optical sampling windows on the University of North Dakota's Citation Research Aircraft to support future instrument flight testing.

Supporting Agency - United Technologies Corporation Aerospace Systems; Dollar Value - $30,408.

Journal of Weather Modification 2014 Project
The University of North Dakota provides editorial and administrative support for the Journal of Weather Modification.

Supporting Agency - Weather Modification Association; Dollar Value - $7,901.

Relationship between Cloud Condensation Nuclei and Satellite Retrievals of Cloud Droplet Effective Radius in the North Dakota Region
One area of low scientific understanding is how clouds affect climate. In particular, how changes in atmospheric aerosols (small suspended particles) affect surface temperature via cloud properties and how aerosol concentrations modify precipitation formation processes. This project targets an important climate change research question using the latest measurement techniques. Specifically, "What is the relationship between below cloud base cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) and satellite retrievals of cloud droplet effective radius in the North Dakota Region?"

Supporting Agency - North Dakota NASA EPSCoR; Dollar Value - $36,342.

Ophir 2013 Flight Testing
The University of North Dakota (UND) owns and operates a Cessna Citation II Research Aircraft is able to measure aerosols and state-of-the-atmosphere parameters over the range of flight conditions typically encountered by commercial aviation aircraft. Ophir Corporation is developing an instrument that use laser returns from aerosols and gases in the atmosphere to characterize the air flow around an aircraft. The University of North Dakota Citation Research Aircraft is test flying the instrument over a range of conditions during dedicated flights. [Odegard Month], [UND Web Site]

Supporting Agency - Ophir Corporation; Dollar Value - $76,889; Extension #1 - $9,177; Extension #2 - $11,424.

Journal of Weather Modification 2013 Project
The University of North Dakota provides editorial and administrative support for the Journal of Weather Modification.

Supporting Agency - Weather Modification Association; Dollar Value - $7,901.

Polarimetric Cloud Analysis and Seeding Test 4 (POLCAST4): 2012 Field Season
POLCAST4 is a cooperative effort involving the University of North Dakota (UND), National Center for Atmospheric Research NCAR), Weather Modification Incorporated (WMI), and Ice Crystal Engineering (ICE) which is sponsored by the North Dakota Atmospheric Resource Board. The overall research objective is to better understand the effects of hygroscopic cloud seeding at cloud base on convective clouds in North Dakota. Field measurements using the UND Polarimetric Radar, an instrument WMI Cessna 340 Aircraft, and surface measurements on top of Clifford Hall were conducted between June 25 and August 3 2012. Three under graduate students, Nicole Bart, Mariusz Starzec, Phondie Simelane,and Timm Uhlmann are working with Dr. Delene, Dr. Mullendore and Dr. Tilley on the research project. [POLCAST4 Wiki Page] [POLCAST4 Gallery Page] [Project Photo] from left to right front row: Jeff Tilley (UND Faculty), David Delene (UND Faculty), Darin Langerud (North Dakota Atmospheric Resource Board), Paul Kucera (National Center for Atmospheric Research), Phondie Simelane (UND Undergraduate Student), Nicole Bart (UND Undergraduate Student); from left to right back row: Tony Grainger (UND Faculty), Mariusz Starzec (UND Undergraduate Student), Timm Uhlmann (UND Undergraduate Student)]

Supporting Agency - North Dakota Atmospheric Research Board; Dollar Value - $128,473.

Goodrich Optical Icing Conditions Detector Flight Testing
United Technologies (previously Goodrich Aerospace Corporation) is developing the Optical Icing Conditions Detector (OICD). The OICD is a lidar-based system for characterizes the flight environment in terms of airframe icing conditions. A prototype OICD has been flown on the Citation Research Aircraft to test the instrument over a targeted range of conditions. Dr. Delene heads the University of North Dakota team that conducts the flight testing and provides data which is compare with the OICD.

Supporting Agency - Goodrich Sensor Systems; Dollar Value - $93,704, extension $93,704.

Polarimetric Cloud Analysis and Seeding Test 3 (POLCAST3): 2010 Field Season
POLCAST3 is a cooperative effort involving the University of North Dakota (UND), National Center for Atmospheric Research NCAR), Weather Modification Incorporated (WMI), and Ice Crystal Engineering (ICE) which is sponsored by the North Dakota Atmospheric Resource Board. The overall research objective is to better understand the effects of hygroscopic cloud seeding at cloud base on convective clouds in North Dakota. Field measurements using the UND Polarimetric Radar, an instrument WMI Cessna 340 Aircraft, the UND Citation Research Aircraft, and surface measurements on top of Clifford Hall are between June 21 and July 23 2010. Three under graduate students, Chris Kruse, Miranda Hilgers, and Emily Danielson, and graduate student, David Keith, are working with Dr. Delene, Dr. Grainger and Dr. Mullendore on the research project. [POLCAST3 Wiki Page] [POLCAST3 Gallery Page] [Project Photo]

Supporting Agency - North Dakota Atmospheric Research Board, Dollar Value - $129,634

Saudi Arabia Atmospheric Research Spring 2009
To further the understanding of precipitation development in Saudi Arabia, a month-long field project lead by the University of North Dakota was conducted to obtain high quality airborne measurements to address the question of 'What are the natural aerosol and cloud microphysical characteristics that exist in the Saudi Arabia region during the spring season'. [Spring 2009 Saudi Arabia Wiki Page] [Spring 2009 Saudi Araiba Gallery Page] [March 28, 2009 Cloud Video] [Group Photo]

Supporting Agency - Weather Modification Inc; Dollar Value - $363,981; $9,290 extension I; $20,841 extension II.

Polarimetric Cloud Analysis and Seeding Test 2 (POLCAST2): 2008 Field Season
POLCAST2 is a cooperative effort involving the University of North Dakota (UND), National Center for Atmospheric Research NCAR), Weather Modification Incorporated (WMI), and Ice Crystal Engineering (ICE) which is sponsored by the North Dakota Atmospheric Resource Board. The overall research objective is to better understand the effects of hygroscopic cloud seeding at cloud base on convective clouds in North Dakota. Field measurements using the UND Polarimetric Radar and an instrument WMI Cessna 340 are between June 9 and July 11 2008. [POLCAST2 Wiki Page] [POLCAST2 Gallery Page] [Project Photo]

Rainfall Enhancement Studies for Mali: 2008 Summer Season
During the 2008 summer field project in Mali, a randomized experiment was begun to statistically evaluate the effectiveness of cloud seeding in the Mali region. The project involves comparing radar derived precipitation from targets that were seeded with targets that were not seeded. Airborne aerosol and cloud physics measurements are made to enable the evaluation of seeding effectiveness under different conditions. [NCAR RAL West Africa Project Page]

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Assessment of Rainfall Augmentation: 2008 Summer Season
The 2008 Summer field project involves conducting atmospheric measurements to understand the precipitation processes in the Asir region of south-west Saudi Arabia. The field project objective is to understand how the natural precipitation processes in the region and how precipitation could be increased. One of my focuses during the field project was to conduct a comparison between two different types of cloud condensation nuclei counters. [NCAR RAL Saudi Arabia Project Page]

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Assessment of Rainfall Augmentation: 2008 Winter Season
The Saudi Arabia research project involves conducting atmospheric measurements to understand the effects of cloud seeding in Saudi Arabia. The overall research objective is to address the question, 'Can rainfall be increased in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia using cloud seeding techniques, and if so by how much?' The Saudi Arabia cloud seeding operation is lead by Weather Modification Inc (WMI) of Fargo, North Dakota. I am one of the flight scientist for the King Air 200 research aircraft which has instruments for conducting atmospheric chemistry, aerosol, and cloud physics measurements. The focus of my work is to analyze the data collected, particularly the cloud microphyiscal data, to access the effectiveness of an operational seeding program and to improve the scientific understanding of the precipitation formation process in the Saudi Arabia region.

Radar/Airborne Measurement Training Program with Programme Saaga
An initial training program was began as part of a long-term research collaboration with Programme Saaga in an effort to better understand cloud and precipitation properties in Burkina Faso, and in West Africa in general. The program provided initial training to help Programme Saaga personnel improve their operational rainfall enhancement program through better understanding of instruments, observations, targeting of clouds, and assessment of cloud seeding. The training program provided an overview of concepts in airborne research; radar analysis, and weather modification assessment. Also, a set of recommendations to help improve the program were developed.

Rainfall Enhancement Studies for Mali: 2007 Summer Season
The project involves conducting scientific research in association with rainfall enhancement operations conducted by Weather Modification Inc of Fargo, North Dakota. The project involves conducting and analyzing airborne measurements to understand and evaluate the operational rainfall enhancement project. Airborne measurements of aerosol and cloud properties will be conducted during 2 months of field measurements in Mali, West Africa. The research goals are to determine the best methods to use for rainfall enhancement in Mali and to start collected measurements for an assessment of the effectiveness of the operational seeding program.

Tropospheric Airborne Meteorological Data Reporting (TAMDAR) Turbulence Evaluation
Measurements from aircraft flights of the University of Wyoming King Air research aircraft are evaluated to test the ability of the TAMDAR probe to measure atmospheric turbulence.

Unmanned Aircraft Systems Remote Sense and Avoid Systems
The project's goal is to develop a feature list for an operational system that uses ganged phased array radars to support the operation of Unmmaned Aircraft Systems within the National Airspace.

Sikorsky S-92 Icing Testing
The University of North Dakota's Citation Research Aircraft would locate and qualify aircraft icing conditions. Once suitable conditions were found, the Sikorsky S-92 helicopter would fly in the icing conditions to demonstrate airworthiness. Upon complete of a series of natural icing testing, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) certified the Sikorsky Aircraft's S-92 helicopter, equipped with a new Rotor Ice Protection System (RIPS), for flights in known icing conditions. The S-92 became the first helicopter directly certified by the FAA to the newest and most stringent all-weather flight safety standards.

Projects Not Funded

CAIG: Physics-Informed AI for Advancing Morning Fog Expansion Dynamics over Non-Mountainous, Continental Locations

Utilizing WISPER Cloud Water Content from NASA IMPACTS 2023 Datasets to Quantify Mass Dimensional Relationships across Precipitation Habits

Supporting Agency - NASA; Dollar Value - $149,774; Project Duration 01/01/2026 - 12/31/2028; Support 2026-0.05 (Not Project Funded), 2027-0.05 (Not Project Funded), 2028-0.05 (Not Project Funded); Proposal Submitted 02/26/2025; Declined 06/19/2025

INSPYRE Cloud Probes Research and Observations
The University of North Dakota lead research team will deploy eleven “required” and one “useful” in-situ instruments on the WB-57 platform to address three primary research topics using data collected during the Injected Smoke and PYRocumulonimbus Experiment (INSPYRE) campaign. The three research areas are 1.) complex crystal habit single scattering properties, 2.) ice crystal chain aggregation and 3.) pyrocumulonimbus electrical structure. In addition to addressing these research topics, a multi-university education component is included that will increase student learning related to collecting data through field experiences, and how observations advance scientific understanding.

Supporting Agency - NASA; Dollar Value - $2,511,430; Project Duration 10/01/2025 - 09/30/2030; Support 2026-3.0, 2027-3.0 2028-3.0 Months; 2029-3.0 Months; 2030-3.0 Months; Proposal Submitted 02/12/2025; Declined 06/12/2025

Top-down and Bottom-up Lead Emission Assessment at the Grand Forks, North Dakota Airport

Aerosol Sensor NOAA SBIR 2024: University of North Dakota Support (PI - Robert Kraus)

Machine Learning Guided Predictive Models of Aqueous Atmospheric Aerosol Phase Change Responses to Temperature and Humidity
The project's objective is to setting up, and experimentally validating, a theory that correlates the presence and distribution of aerosols in the exhaust of rockets and hypersonic vehicles with their operational performance and potential impact on the stratosphere. Validation tests will be conducted to measure the performance parameters of the rocket as well as aerosol emission characteristics. We hypothesize that the presence of soot aerosols is related to the efficiency of the combustion process, which further affects the thrust and specific impulse achieved. A potential relationship between the presence of soot particles and the efficiency of a rocket is investigated.

Supporting Agency - Department of Energy (DOE) Office of Science; Dollar Value - $945,000; Project Duration 08/01/2024 - 07/31/2027; Support 2024-1.0, 2025-1.0, 2026-1.0 Months

Precipitation Processes and Weather Modification in Saudi Arabia
Project to research advanced weather modification methods for Saudi Arabia by an international team of researchers.

Supporting Agency - Aerospace Foundation, Project Dollar Value: $4,999,383, Project Duration: July 1, 2024 - June 30, 2029.

Aerosols Analysis in the Exhaust from Rockets and Hypersonic Vehicles
The project's objective is to setting up, and experimentally validating, a theory that correlates the presence and distribution of aerosols in the exhaust of rockets and hypersonic vehicles with their operational performance and potential impact on the stratosphere. Validation tests will be conducted to measure the performance parameters of the rocket as well as aerosol emission characteristics. We hypothesize that the presence of soot aerosols is related to the efficiency of the combustion process, which further affects the thrust and specific impulse achieved. A potential relationship between the presence of soot particles and the efficiency of a rocket is investigated.

Supporting Agency - Air Force Office of Scientific Research (FOA-AFRL-AFOSR-2023-0008); Dollar Value - $600,000; Project Duration 07/01/2024 - 06/30/2027

Clouds and Visibility Navy STTR 2023: University of North Dakota Support

Supporting Agency - DOD (Navy) STTR with MZA Associates Corporation, Project Dollar Value: $72,000, Proposal Submitted - 2023/03/08, Project Duration: September 1, 2023 - December 31, 2024.

VisiCAST: Multi-Sensor, ML-Powered Visibility Nowcast and Forecast for Aviation Operations

Supporting Agency - DOD (Air Force) SBIR with ATA LLC, Project Dollar Value: $80,000, Proposal Submitted - 2023/03/07, Project Duration: October 1, 2023 - June 30, 2024

Impact of Total Solar Eclipse on Terpene’s Photochemical Reactions in the Upper Troposphere
Summary (pdf)

Supporting Agency - NASA, Project Dollar Value: $422,921.36, Project Duration: January 1, 2023 - June 30, 2024. [Notice of Intent, 09/09/2022, Invited; Proposal Submitted 11/08/202; Proposal Declined 05/24/2023]

Solicitation: NNH22ZDA001N-ISE:B.17 Interdisciplinary Science for Eclipse [Notice of Intent, 09/09/2022, Invited; Proposal Submitted 11/08/2023; Proposal Declined 05/24/2023]

Open Science Workflows Training Utilizing NASA Airborne Data Sets

Supporting Agency - NASA, Project Dollar Value: $398,854, Project Duration: May 16, 2023 - May 15, 2025.

Solicitation: NNH22ZDA001N-TOPST:F.14 Transform to Open Science Training [Proposal Submitted 12/08/2022; Proposal Declined 04/13/2023 (debrief)]

RII Track-2 FEC: Building the Future of Safer, Economical, and Smarter Aerial Operations via an Advanced All-Weather Testing Framework
One aspects of commercially viable integration of small unmanned aerial vehicle (sUAV) technologies into the national airspace system (NAS) is all-weather operations. Testing of sUAVs in all types of weather can be costly and time consuming due to not having access to the desired atmospheric conditions. Additionally, performance requirements are hampered by not knowing how specific adverse weather conditions affect sUAV. An inter-disciplinary network of researchers aims to establishing an experimental, computational, and flight testing framework for all-weather sUAV operations that fundamentally understanding the sUAS flight dynamics in adverse weather conditions, and provides data to inform sUAV design and operational regulations in adverse weather.

Supporting Agency - National Science Foundation; UND Project Dollar Value - $244,487; Total Project Dollar Value - $5,854,572; Submitted - 2022/01/30.

Elements: Time-series Adaptive Software for the Workflow of Environmental Researchers and Students (TASWERS)
Environment around us have led to some of the most important scientific discoveries in human history. Scientist make observations that are critical to understanding and adapting to the world we live. For example, atmospheric measurements are essential starting points for weather forecasts and for determining forecast accuracy. Observations are typically collected during field campaigns where scientist deploy complex instruments to observe specific processes. Many agencies delivering data to public access via websites, such as Airnow and Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) website. However, most websites host data for short periods. The FAA sites only have current METAR/AWOS/ASOS data available. The NSF Earth Cube program has created the Cloud HOsted Real-time Data Services (CHORDS) system for archival of scientific observations; however, the CHORDS system can also be used store measurements typically only made available for short periods. Collecting these observations from multiple sources into a single database enables research projects to analyze observations without the need to deploy their own instruments. This project focus is on collecting data from existing websites to support research and educational projects. The project uses the Grafana open platform to visualize the CHORDS data set. Hence, the developed gateway demonstrates how easy it is to store time-series data for research and educational use to encourage data providers to setup their own sites in addition to hosting current observations.

Supporting Agency - National Science Foundation (Proposal #2209830); Project Dollar Value - $500,343; Proposal Submitted - 2021/12/08; Proposal Declined - 2022/06/04.

Sustainable Software for Processing Airborne Data to Support the Workflow of Atmospheric Science Researchers (PI - David Delene, co-PI - Marwa Majdi)
The objective is to enhance the existing Airborne Data Processing and Analysis (ADPAA) software gateway by moving the code base to the python programming language and adding the ability to storage observations in a data base optimized for time series observations. The data base enables easy access to the data by users and effective visualizations of the observations quickly.

Supporting Agency - North Dakota NASA EPSCor CAN; Dollar Value - $470,000; Proposal Submitted - 2021/12/19; Rejected 2021/09/10.

Sustainable Software for Processing Airborne Data to Support the Workflow of Atmospheric Science Researchers (PI - David Delene, co-PI - Marwa Majdi)
The University of North Dakota (UND) has developed the Airborne Data Processing and Analysis (ADPAA) Software Gateway which supports open-source software for processing airborne research measurements collected during field campaigns using a large set of scientific instruments. The ADPAA system does not currently use a database system for storage and access of measurements. Moreover, the Internet-accessible visualization is minimum. This project aims at enhancing the current software framework (ADPAA) to include storage of time-series data using CHORDS and develop a new package, Time-series Adaptive Software for the Workflow of Environmental Researchers and Students (TASWERS) that focuses on collecting data from existing public websites into a single database. The project's developed TASWERS gateway aims to demonstrate how easy it is to permanently store time-series data for research and educational use to encourage data providers to set up their sites in addition to hosting current observations.

Supporting Agency - National Aeronautics & Space Administration - Support for Open Source Tools, Frameworks, and Libraries Solicitation; Dollar Value - $576,429; Proposal Submitted - 2021/12/17; Rejected 2022/01/19,

Declined on 2021/09/05: 61 Proposals Submitted, 8 Proposals Funded, 13% Success Rate (Letter, Reviews)

Improved Fog Forecast for Unmanned Aircraft System Operations (PI - Marwa Majdi, Co-PI - David Delene
Unmanned Aircraft System (UAS) operations spread rapidly worldwide performing a variety of military and civilian applications. The ability and the performance of UAS to carry out all these applications can be strongly affected by poor weather conditions. With the increasing demand for UAS, there is a need to better understand the effect of adverse weather conditions on UAS flight to successfully plan, execute, and complete a mission. Fog is one of the critical issues that threaten the safety of UAS missions by altering visibility. Therefore, decreasing the fog-related risks during UAS flight by understanding and accurately next day predicting fog is crucial. Current fog data are not able to completely meet the needs of UAS operators since they still present gaps. To fill these gaps, this study aims at developing a user-friendly interface for the UAS community in North Dakota to provide them with a reliable and interactive forecasting system that can deliver useful and accurate fog products to the UAS community. This fog forecast system is based on improving the performance and the capability of model for a next-day fog forecast using data assimilation collected by UAS before and during the fog event. Improving the weather forecast for UAS operations is still one of the main research areas of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). Therefore, the effectiveness and the performance of the fog forecast system developed here for the North Dakota UAS community will further motivate the FAA to extend the use of this forecast system for all the other UAS communities in the United States.

Supporting Agency - DOT - FAA Aviation Research Grants; Dollar Value - $795,582; Proposal Submitted - 2020/08/06.

Airborne Measurements Support for Natural Icing Project
The University of North Dakota (UND) has experience using the North Dakota Citation Research Aircraft (CRA) to conduct airborne measurements in support of aircraft icing studies. The CRA is a platform able to measure aerosols, cloud microphysical and state-of-the-atmosphere parameters over the range of flight conditions typically encountered by commercial and general aviation aircraft. In accordance with FAA defined natural icing conditions (Part 25, Appendix C of the FAA Regulations), the CRA is able to conduct in-situ cloud measurements to define natural icing conditions.

Supporting Agency - L3 Communications, Dollar Value - $738,716, Proposal Submitted - 2016/08/17

Arctic Investigation Modeling Processes of Aerosols, Clouds, and Transport (Arctic IMPACT)
Proposal submitted by University of North Dakota Principal Investor Michael Poellot in response to call, NNH17ZDA001N-EVS3:Earth System Science Pathfinder (ESSP) Venture-class Science Investigations: Earth Venture Suborbital-3.

Supporting Agency - NASA, Dollar Value - $630,783, Proposal Submitted - 2018/04/12, Proposal Declined - November 2018

Relationship between Cloud Condensation Nuclei Concentration and Convective Cold Pool Development
As our knowledge of Cloud Condensation Nuclei (CCN) continues to grow, understanding how CCN might affect thunderstorms is a substantial topic of interest for potential research projects. Prior research has shown that higher CCN concentrations suppresses precipitation initially. However, once precipitation is initiated, storms that develop in environments with higher CCN concentrations may be sustained for a longer duration. For these longer duration thunderstorms, a delicate balance is required between wind shear and cold pool strength that maintains the storms. In environments where cold pools are more dominate, storms will gust out and eventually dissipate. Conversely, if shear is too strong, storms overtake the cold pools and the storm dissipates. This project investigates how CCN concentration affects the size and strength of cold pools, which provides valuable insight into what factors contribute to thunderstorm strength and duration.

Supporting Agency - NASA, Dollar Value - $50,000, Proposal Submitted - 2018/03/20, Proposal Declined - July 2018

Towards Antonymous Plume Mapping using Unmanned Aircraft Systems and Continuously Point Location Measurements
The research objective is to test a commercially available optical particle counter from a small UAS platform and develop an antonymous plume mapping system. The UAS test flights will be conducted out of line of slight and over an extended range such as Grand Forks to Hillsboro. Such extended range airborne observations will provide data for the follow-on proposed project, namely demonstration of the ability to conduct anonymously mapping of plumes. The real advantage of the proposed system is not using a small sensor on UAS to repeat what is done on manned aircraft, but to map out an atmospheric plume using a predefined methodology instead of a having a flight scientist making real-time decision to direct the flight profile. Such an antonymous mapping system has numerous applications to atmospheric science research and environmental monitoring over the traditional manned aircraft mission operations.

Transformative Research on the Aerosol-Cloud Effect for Rain Study (TRACERS)
Studying the physical processes involved in the chain of events that results in rain formation is difficult because there is currently no robust method that links in-situ measurement of aerosols and clouds. Therefore, it is difficult to directly quantify how aerosols introduced by cloud seeding methods affect cloud microphysical properties. Without quantitative relationships, it is impossible to model the effects that different cloud seeding techniques have on precipitation development. Our transformative research project enables direct determination of the relationship between aerosols used to seed clouds and corresponding cloud properties by using special hygroscopic flares and an innovative measurement methodology. The element indium is added to hygroscopic flares to distinguish seeding aerosols from naturally occurring aerosols. A counter-flow virtual impactor is used to evaporate droplets in seeded clouds to obtain only aerosols (cloud condensation nuclei) involved in the nucleation process. An mini Aerosol Mass Spectrometer system (Mini-AMS) monitors the aerosol chemical composition in real-time for Indium. Detection of indium is a direct indication that the cloud parcel is affected by seeding since indium is not a detectable component of atmospheric aerosols. Cloud droplet size distribution measurements concurrent with indium detection provide observations of seeded parcels, while periods without indium detection provide observations of non-seeded parcels. Comparisons of seeded and non-seeded parcels provide direct evidence of how hygroscopic seeding changes the microphysics of clouds. This innovative observational methodology allows for the first time the direct determination of changes in cloud properties under atmospheric seeding conditions. A mesoscale numerical weather model that uses the observed difference in cloud mass and cloud droplet concentration between seeded and non-seeded clouds is used to quantitatively determine the impact on precipitation, and will be a significant advancement in weather modification research. Furthermore, the observational methodology will advance cloud-physics research by providing another observational tool to improve our scientific understanding of precipitation development.

New Approaches in Rainfall Enhancement Science for Arid Regions
The project's focus is on analyzing existing and new aerosol measurements in arid regions, testing existing and newly developed hygroscopic flares in aerosol and cloud chambers and model sensitivity studies to investigate how the cloud droplet spectrum in arid regions influences precipitation development. The project includes surface aerosol and cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) measurements in the United Arab Emirates using state of the art instrumentation. An objective of the project is to design new hygroscopic flares optimized for arid regions using existing and new aerosol measurements. Additionally, the project incorporates CCN measurements into cloud-allowing scale models designed for arid regions. A major project task is to test seeding flares in aerosol and cloud chambers using a dilution inlet system that reduces the concentration and temperature of the sample. The results of the chamber research guides sensitivity studies conducted with the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model. Changes in CCN concentration affect the cloud droplet size distribution and hence precipitation formation. To determine how newly developed flares can enhance precipitation formation, WRF model sensitivity studies investigate how changes in the cloud droplet distribution seen in the chamber research affect precipitation amount. The project's expected result is knowledge on how to optimize seeding flares for enhancing the collision-coalescence process in arid environments and advancement in simulations of precipitation in arid regions.

Perception versus Observation: Examining Changes in Air Quality in Western North Dakota
We hypothesize that perceived and actual changes in air quality are often different. We further hypothesize that the difference will vary depending on demographic (e.g., age and education) and geographical (e.g., proximity to development areas) factors. We propose to test this hypothesis using the case of Western North Dakota over the last ten years where rapid development has occurred as a result of petroleum extraction efforts.

National Science Foundation Major Research Instrumentation: Acquisition of an Aerosol Mass Spectrometer
An Aerodyne high resolution, time-of-flight, aerosol mass spectrometer with a thermal denuder and BGI counterflow virtual impactor (CVI-TD-HR-TOF-AMS or AMS) will be acquired for use by a collaborative team of researchers at the University of North Dakota (UND). This state-of the art instrument will be a powerful tool for studying submicron particle chemical composition and its relationship to particle properties. It will greatly strengthen research infrastructure at UND, supporting research into: 1) atmospheric particles that nucleate cloud droplets and ice crystals, 2) chemical and volatility characterization of organic aerosols and reactions of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, 3) alkali aerosols in coal/biomass combustion, 4) biofuel combustion emissions, and 5) air quality in western North Dakota.

A Multi-Regime Observational and Modeling Study of Relationships Between Aerosols, Ice Nuclei, and Resulting Hydrometeor Distributions in Mixed Phase Stratiform and Convective Clouds
We hypothesize that a careful, high spatio-temporal scale reanalysis of previous field program microphysical and aerosol data over multiple regimes will reveal new insights into cloud-aerosol interactions. Further, we hypothesize that these fine-scale field data can be profitably compared with output from cloud-scale model simulations that incorporate at least a double-moment microphysical scheme and basic treatment of aerosol and chemical processes. While such approaches have been applied in a limited fashion to individual warm cloud field efforts, much less has been done in this regard to cold clouds. We propose to (1) re-examines previous field campaign microphysical and aerosol data on scales of O (10-100 m), and (2) utilizing a new coupling of WRF-Chem aerosol models, the Milbrandt-Yau microphysical scheme and recent new formulations of ice nucleation processes, to address the several important scientific questions related to cloud-aerosol interactions.

Collaborative Research: NORCIS: Northern Plains Convective Initiation Study
Recent field programs (e.g., IHOP, VORTEX, VORTEX-2) have focused on convective systems from a variety of perspectives, and are continuing to enrich our knowledge base regarding, among other issues: 1) meso-α/β scale processes and forcings that result in the initiation of deep convection; and 2) the processes occurring within supercellular storms that govern the degree to which such a supercell becomes tornadic or not. However, there are still sizable gaps in our knowledge of and ability to simulate fine-scale (i.e., cloud scale, O~500 m-5 km) processes and interactions that determine exactly where convection will initiate within a meso-β scale environment that is otherwise prime for convective development. A unified understanding of the roles of surface flux inhomogeneities, boundary-layer turbulence, local aerosol processes and cloud microphysical processes remains to be formulated. The prime scientific focus of the project therefore is to investigate the processes and interactions that contribute to convective initiation from a meso-γ/micro-α scale perspective.

To understand processes at these scales, new observation suites are needed. Recent and newly emerging technologies now allow for such suites of observations to be gathered. A key element of the proposed effort, the Northern Plains Convective Initiation Study (NORCIS), is a field campaign to be conducted during six weeks in summer 2014 within eastern North Dakota and Northwestern Minnesota. Summertime convection is common in this region but with lower values of convective available potential energy than in the Central and Southern Plains; explosive convection is thus less common. As our prime focus is to better understand where convection initiates, and not how it develops past the cumulus castellanus/congestus stage, the Northern Plains is better suited for this study. Observations taken during the campaign will provide a rich data set for synthesis studies involving analysis of field data as well as modeling and data assimilation systems.

Significance of Crop Harvesting in the North Central Region of the United States as a Source of Climatically Important Aerosols
The project's hypothesis is that modern crop harvesting in the Midwest United States using harvesting combines is a source of atmospheric aerosols that are of climatic importance which need to be incorporated into atmospheric models. The research objective is to test this hypothesis by conducting measurements during wheat harvesting to quantitatively estimate the climatic importance of atmospheric aerosols resulting from regional harvesting activities.

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